Photon source, metrology apparatus, lithographic system and device manufacturing method

ABSTRACT

A laser driven light source comprises laser and focusing optics. These produce a beam of radiation focused on a plasma forming zone within a container containing a gas (e.g., Xe). Collection optics collects photons emitted by a plasma maintained by the laser radiation to form a beam of output radiation. Plasma has an elongate form (L&gt;d) and collecting optics is configured to collect photons emerging in the longitudinal direction from the plasma. The brightness of the plasma is increased compared with sources which collect radiation emerging transversely from the plasma. A metrology apparatus using the light source can achieve greater accuracy and/or throughput as a result of the increased brightness. Back reflectors may be provided. Microwave radiation may be used instead of laser radiation to form the plasma.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is related to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/658,654, filed Jun. 12, 2012, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to plasma based photon sources. Such sources may be used for example to provide high brightness illumination in methods and for metrology usable, for example, in the manufacture of devices by lithographic techniques and to methods of manufacturing devices using lithographic techniques.

2. Background Art

Photon sources according to the invention may find application in a wide range of situations. As an example application, we will describe use of the invention as a light source in metrology. As a particular field of application of metrology, we shall refer for the sake of example to metrology in the manufacture of devices by lithography. The terms ‘light’ and ‘light source’ may be used conveniently to refer to the generated radiation and the photon source itself, without implying any limitation to radiation of visible wavelengths.

A lithographic apparatus is a machine that applies a desired pattern onto a substrate, usually onto a target portion of the substrate. A lithographic apparatus can be used, for example, in the manufacture of integrated circuits (ICs). In that instance, a patterning device, which is alternatively referred to as a mask or a reticle, may be used to generate a circuit pattern to be formed on an individual layer of the IC. This pattern can be transferred onto a target portion (e.g., including part of, one, or several dies) on a substrate (e.g., a silicon wafer). Transfer of the pattern is typically via imaging onto a layer of radiation-sensitive material (resist) provided on the substrate. In general, a single substrate will contain a network of adjacent target portions that are successively patterned. Known lithographic apparatus include so-called steppers, in which each target portion is irradiated by exposing an entire pattern onto the target portion at one time, and so-called scanners, in which each target portion is irradiated by scanning the pattern through a radiation beam in a given direction (the “scanning”-direction) while synchronously scanning the substrate parallel or anti parallel to this direction. It is also possible to transfer the pattern from the patterning device to the substrate by imprinting the pattern onto the substrate.

In lithographic processes, it is desirable frequently to make measurements of the structures created, e.g., for process control and verification. Various tools for making such measurements are known, including scanning electron microscopes, which are often used to measure critical dimension (CD), and specialized tools to measure overlay, the accuracy of alignment of two layers in a device. Recently, various forms of scatterometers have been developed for use in the lithographic field. These devices direct a beam of radiation onto a target and measure one or more properties of the scattered radiation. From these measured properties a property of interest of the target can be determined.

In one commercially available metrology apparatus, the light source is a xenon (Xe) arc-discharge lamp. Light from this lamp is imaged onto the measurement target through an illumination branch of the apparatus sensor, the last stage of which consists of a high-NA objective. The measurement spot may have a diameter of 25 μm, for example. The spectral distribution of the radiation may be broadband or narrowband in nature, and wavelengths may be in the near infrared, visible and/or ultraviolet bands. The time required for each measurement depends in practice on the brightness of the light source at a given wavelength or wave range. Future generations of apparatus are desired to provide an increased spectral bandwidth and sensor design with lower transmittance, while keeping the measurement time the same or shorter. Significant source brightness improvements are necessary to fulfill these requirements.

Increasing brightness is not achieved simply by increasing the total source power. To increase brightness, a higher power must be delivered into the same small spot size. Etendue is a measure of how ‘spread out’ a rays are in an optical system. A fundamental property of optical systems is that ‘etendue’ never decreases through the system. The optical etendue at the target side of the optical system in the metrology apparatus is very small (due to the small spot size). Therefore the light source must deliver all its energy in a very small etendue, in order to provide a real increase in usable brightness.

Plasma-based photon sources, for example laser driven light sources (LDLS) offer higher brightnesses. Plasmas are generated in a gaseous medium by the application of energy through electric discharge, and laser energy. However, the plasma has a finite physical extent and increasing brightness is still a challenge with these sources.

SUMMARY

The present invention aims to provide a high brightness photon source by alternative means.

The invention in a first aspect provides a plasma-based photon source apparatus comprising a container for containing a gaseous atmosphere, a driving system for generating radiation, hereinafter referred to as the driving radiation, and forming the driving radiation into at least one beam focused on a plasma forming zone within the container, and a collecting optical system for collecting photons emitted by a plasma maintained by the radiation beam at the plasma location and forming the collected photons into at least one beam of output radiation. The driving system is configured to maintain the plasma in an elongate form having a length along a longitudinal axis that is substantially greater than its diameter in at least one direction transverse to the longitudinal axis, and wherein the collecting optical system is configured to collect photons emerging from the plasma from one end of the plasma along the longitudinal axis.

The driving system may include at least one laser for generating the beam of radiation with wavelengths for example in the infrared or visible wavebands. The invention is thus suitable for application to laser driven light sources. The driving system may alternatively be arranged to generate the radiation in the microwave range. In either case, the driving system may be regarded as a driving optical system, applying for example infrared optics or microwave optics as appropriate.

As mentioned, the novel photon source may be applied in metrology, for example in lithography. The invention in another aspect provides method of measuring a property of structures that have been formed by a lithographic process on a substrate, the method comprising the steps of illuminating the structures using output radiation of a photon source according to the first aspect of the invention, set forth above; detecting radiation diffracted by the structures; and determining from properties of the diffracted radiation one or more properties of the structure.

The invention yet further provides an inspection apparatus for measuring a property of a structure on a substrate, the apparatus comprising a support for the substrate having the structure thereon; an optical system for illuminating the structure under predetermined illumination conditions and for detecting predetermined portions of radiation diffracted by the component target structures under the illumination conditions; a processor arranged to process information characterizing the detected radiation to obtain a measurement of the property of the structure. The optical system includes a photon source apparatus according to the invention as set forth above.

The invention yet further provides a lithographic system comprising a lithographic apparatus comprising: an illumination optical system arranged to illuminate a pattern, a projection optical system arranged to project an image of the pattern onto a substrate; and an inspection apparatus according to an embodiment of the invention as set forth above. The lithographic apparatus is arranged to use the measurement results from the inspection apparatus in applying the pattern to further substrates.

The invention yet further provides a method of manufacturing devices wherein a device pattern is applied to a series of substrates using a lithographic process, the method including inspecting at least one composite target structure formed as part of or beside the device pattern on at least one of the substrates using an inspection method as claimed in claim 12 and controlling the lithographic process for later substrates in accordance with the result of the inspection method.

Further features and advantages of the invention, as well as the structure and operation of various embodiments of the invention, are described in detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings. It is noted that the invention is not limited to the specific embodiments described herein. Such embodiments are presented herein for illustrative purposes only. Additional embodiments will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and form part of the specification, illustrate the present invention and, together with the description, further serve to explain the principles of the invention and to enable a person skilled in the relevant art(s) to make and use the invention.

FIG. 1 depicts a lithographic apparatus according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2 depicts a lithographic cell or cluster according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3 comprises a schematic diagram of an optical apparatus incorporating a photon source, the apparatus in this example having the form of a scatterometer used in metrology.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a novel photon source used in the apparatus of FIG. 3 according to a first embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 5 is a graph presenting experimental data on the relative brightness of an elongate plasma when viewed in longitudinal and lateral directions.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a novel photon source used in the apparatus of FIG. 3 according to a second embodiment of the present invention.

FIGS. 7 (a) and (b) are schematic views of a novel photon source used in the apparatus of FIG. 3 according to a third embodiment of the present invention.

The features and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the detailed description set forth below when taken in conjunction with the drawings, in which like reference characters identify corresponding elements throughout. In the drawings, like reference numbers generally indicate identical, functionally similar, and/or structurally similar elements. The drawing in which an element first appears is indicated by the leftmost digit(s) in the corresponding reference number.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

This specification discloses one or more embodiments that incorporate the features of this invention. The disclosed embodiment(s) merely exemplify the invention. The scope of the invention is not limited to the disclosed embodiment(s). The invention is defined by the claims appended hereto.

The embodiment(s) described, and references in the specification to “one embodiment”, “an embodiment”, “an example embodiment”, etc., indicate that the embodiment(s) described may include a particular feature, structure, or characteristic, but every embodiment may not necessarily include the particular feature, structure, or characteristic. Moreover, such phrases are not necessarily referring to the same embodiment. Further, when a particular feature, structure, or characteristic is described in connection with an embodiment, it is understood that it is within the knowledge of one skilled in the art to effect such feature, structure, or characteristic in connection with other embodiments whether or not explicitly described.

Embodiments of the invention may be implemented in hardware, firmware, software, or any combination thereof. Embodiments of the invention may also be implemented as instructions stored on a machine-readable medium, which may be read and executed by one or more processors. A machine-readable medium may include any mechanism for storing or transmitting information in a form readable by a machine (e.g., a computing device). For example, a machine-readable medium may include read only memory (ROM); random access memory (RAM); magnetic disk storage media; optical storage media; flash memory devices; electrical, optical, acoustical or other forms of propagated signals (e.g., carrier waves, infrared signals, digital signals, etc.), and others. Further, firmware, software, routines, instructions may be described herein as performing certain actions. However, it should be appreciated that such descriptions are merely for convenience and that such actions in fact result from computing devices, processors, controllers, or other devices executing the firmware, software, routines, instructions, etc.

Before describing embodiments of the invention in detail, it is instructive to present an example environment in which embodiments of the present invention may be implemented.

FIG. 1 schematically depicts a lithographic apparatus LA. The apparatus includes an illumination system (illuminator) IL configured to condition a radiation beam B (e.g., UV radiation or DUV radiation), a patterning device support or support structure (e.g., a mask table) MT constructed to support a patterning device (e.g., a mask) MA and connected to a first positioner PM configured to accurately position the patterning device in accordance with certain parameters; a substrate table (e.g., a wafer table) WT constructed to hold a substrate (e.g., a resist coated wafer) W and connected to a second positioner PW configured to accurately position the substrate in accordance with certain parameters; and a projection system (e.g., a refractive projection lens system) PS configured to project a pattern imparted to the radiation beam B by patterning device MA onto a target portion C (e.g., including one or more dies) of the substrate W.

The illumination system may include various types of optical components, such as refractive, reflective, magnetic, electromagnetic, electrostatic or other types of optical components, or any combination thereof, for directing, shaping, or controlling radiation.

The patterning device support holds the patterning device in a manner that depends on the orientation of the patterning device, the design of the lithographic apparatus, and other conditions, such as for example whether or not the patterning device is held in a vacuum environment. The patterning device support can use mechanical, vacuum, electrostatic or other clamping techniques to hold the patterning device. The patterning device support may be a frame or a table, for example, which may be fixed or movable as required. The patterning device support may ensure that the patterning device is at a desired position, for example with respect to the projection system. Any use of the terms “reticle” or “mask” herein may be considered synonymous with the more general term “patterning device.”

The term “patterning device” used herein should be broadly interpreted as referring to any device that can be used to impart a radiation beam with a pattern in its cross-section such as to create a pattern in a target portion of the substrate. It should be noted that the pattern imparted to the radiation beam may not exactly correspond to the desired pattern in the target portion of the substrate, for example if the pattern includes phase-shifting features or so called assist features. Generally, the pattern imparted to the radiation beam will correspond to a particular functional layer in a device being created in the target portion, such as an integrated circuit.

The patterning device may be transmissive or reflective. Examples of patterning devices include masks, programmable mirror arrays, and programmable LCD panels. Masks are well known in lithography, and include mask types such as binary, alternating phase-shift, and attenuated phase-shift, as well as various hybrid mask types. An example of a programmable mirror array employs a matrix arrangement of small mirrors, each of which can be individually tilted so as to reflect an incoming radiation beam in different directions. The tilted mirrors impart a pattern in a radiation beam, which is reflected by the mirror matrix.

The term “projection system” used herein should be broadly interpreted as encompassing any type of projection system, including refractive, reflective, catadioptric, magnetic, electromagnetic and electrostatic optical systems, or any combination thereof, as appropriate for the exposure radiation being used, or for other factors such as the use of an immersion liquid or the use of a vacuum. Any use of the term “projection lens” herein may be considered as synonymous with the more general term “projection system”.

As here depicted, the apparatus is of a transmissive type (e.g., employing a transmissive mask). Alternatively, the apparatus may be of a reflective type (e.g., employing a programmable mirror array of a type as referred to above, or employing a reflective mask).

The lithographic apparatus may be of a type having two (dual stage) or more substrate tables (and/or two or more mask tables). In such “multiple stage” machines the additional tables may be used in parallel, or preparatory steps may be carried out on one or more tables while one or more other tables are being used for exposure.

The lithographic apparatus may also be of a type wherein at least a portion of the substrate may be covered by a liquid having a relatively high refractive index, e.g., water, so as to fill a space between the projection system and the substrate. An immersion liquid may also be applied to other spaces in the lithographic apparatus, for example, between the mask and the projection system. Immersion techniques are well known in the art for increasing the numerical aperture of projection systems. The term “immersion” as used herein does not mean that a structure, such as a substrate, must be submerged in liquid, but rather only means that liquid is located between the projection system and the substrate during exposure.

Referring to FIG. 1, the illuminator IL receives a radiation beam from a radiation source SO. The source and the lithographic apparatus may be separate entities, for example when the source is an excimer laser. In such cases, the source is not considered to form part of the lithographic apparatus and the radiation beam is passed from the source SO to the illuminator IL with the aid of a beam delivery system BD including, for example, suitable directing mirrors and/or a beam expander. In other cases the source may be an integral part of the lithographic apparatus, for example when the source is a mercury lamp. The source SO and the illuminator IL, together with the beam delivery system BD if required, may be referred to as a radiation system.

The illuminator IL may include an adjuster AD for adjusting the angular intensity distribution of the radiation beam. Generally, at least the outer and/or inner radial extent (commonly referred to as σ-outer and σ-inner, respectively) of the intensity distribution in a pupil plane of the illuminator can be adjusted. In addition, the illuminator IL may include various other components, such as an integrator IN and a condenser CO. The illuminator may be used to condition the radiation beam, to have a desired uniformity and intensity distribution in its cross section.

The radiation beam B is incident on the patterning device (e.g., mask) MA, which is held on the patterning device support (e.g., mask table MT), and is patterned by the patterning device. Having traversed the patterning device (e.g., mask) MA, the radiation beam B passes through the projection system PS, which focuses the beam onto a target portion C of the substrate W. With the aid of the second positioner PW and position sensor IF (e.g., an interferometric device, linear encoder, 2-D encoder or capacitive sensor), the substrate table WT can be moved accurately, e.g., so as to position different target portions C in the path of the radiation beam B. Similarly, the first positioner PM and another position sensor (which is not explicitly depicted in FIG. 1) can be used to accurately position the patterning device (e.g., mask) MA with respect to the path of the radiation beam B, e.g., after mechanical retrieval from a mask library, or during a scan. In general, movement of the patterning device support (e.g., mask table) MT may be realized with the aid of a long-stroke module (coarse positioning) and a short-stroke module (fine positioning), which form part of the first positioner PM. Similarly, movement of the substrate table WT may be realized using a long-stroke module and a short-stroke module, which form part of the second positioner PW. In the case of a stepper (as opposed to a scanner) the patterning device support (e.g., mask table) MT may be connected to a short-stroke actuator only, or may be fixed.

Patterning device (e.g., mask) MA and substrate W may be aligned using mask alignment marks M1, M2 and substrate alignment marks P1, P2. Although the substrate alignment marks as illustrated occupy dedicated target portions, they may be located in spaces between target portions (these are known as scribe-lane alignment marks). Similarly, in situations in which more than one die is provided on the patterning device (e.g., mask) MA, the mask alignment marks may be located between the dies. Small alignment markers may also be included within dies, in amongst the device features, in which case it is desirable that the markers be as small as possible and not require any different imaging or process conditions than adjacent features. The alignment system, which detects the alignment markers is described further below.

The depicted apparatus could be used in at least one of the following modes:

1. In step mode, the patterning device support (e.g., mask table) MT and the substrate table WT are kept essentially stationary, while an entire pattern imparted to the radiation beam is projected onto a target portion C at one time (i.e., a single static exposure). The substrate table WT is then shifted in the X and/or Y direction so that a different target portion C can be exposed. In step mode, the maximum size of the exposure field limits the size of the target portion C imaged in a single static exposure.

2. In scan mode, the patterning device support (e.g., mask table) MT and the substrate table WT are scanned synchronously while a pattern imparted to the radiation beam is projected onto a target portion C (i.e., a single dynamic exposure). The velocity and direction of the substrate table WT relative to the patterning device support (e.g., mask table) MT may be determined by the (de-)magnification and image reversal characteristics of the projection system PS. In scan mode, the maximum size of the exposure field limits the width (in the non-scanning direction) of the target portion in a single dynamic exposure, whereas the length of the scanning motion determines the height (in the scanning direction) of the target portion.

3. In another mode, the patterning device support (e.g., mask table) MT is kept essentially stationary holding a programmable patterning device, and the substrate table WT is moved or scanned while a pattern imparted to the radiation beam is projected onto a target portion C. In this mode, generally a pulsed radiation source is employed and the programmable patterning device is updated as required after each movement of the substrate table WT or in between successive radiation pulses during a scan. This mode of operation can be readily applied to maskless lithography that utilizes programmable patterning device, such as a programmable mirror array of a type as referred to above.

Combinations and/or variations on the above described modes of use or entirely different modes of use may also be employed.

Lithographic apparatus LA is of a so-called dual stage type which has two substrate tables WTa, WTb and two stations—an exposure station and a measurement station—between which the substrate tables can be exchanged. While one substrate on one substrate table is being exposed at the exposure station, another substrate can be loaded onto the other substrate table at the measurement station and various preparatory steps carried out. The preparatory steps may include mapping the surface control of the substrate using a level sensor LS and measuring the position of alignment markers on the substrate using an alignment sensor AS. This enables a substantial increase in the throughput of the apparatus. If the position sensor IF is not capable of measuring the position of the substrate table while it is at the measurement station as well as at the exposure station, a second position sensor may be provided to enable the positions of the substrate table to be tracked at both stations.

As shown in FIG. 2, the lithographic apparatus LA forms part of a lithographic cell LC, also sometimes referred to a lithocell or cluster, which also includes apparatus to perform pre- and post-exposure processes on a substrate. Conventionally these include spin coaters SC to deposit resist layers, developers DE to develop exposed resist, chill plates CH and bake plates BK. A substrate handler, or robot, RO picks up substrates from input/output ports I/O1, I/O2, moves them between the different process apparatus and delivers then to the loading bay LB of the lithographic apparatus. These devices, which are often collectively referred to as the track, are under the control of a track control unit TCU which is itself controlled by the supervisory control system SCS, which also controls the lithographic apparatus via lithography control unit LACU. Thus, the different apparatus can be operated to maximize throughput and processing efficiency.

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of an optical apparatus in the form of a scatterometer suitable for performing metrology in conjunction with the lithocell of FIG. 2. The apparatus may be used for measuring critical dimensions of features formed by lithography, measuring overlay between layers and the like. A product feature or dedicated metrology target is formed on substrate W. The apparatus may be a stand-alone device or incorporated in either the lithographic apparatus LA, e.g., at the measurement station, or the lithographic cell LC. An optical axis, which has several branches throughout the apparatus, is represented by a dotted line O. In this apparatus, light emitted by source 11 is directed onto substrate W via a beam splitter 15 by an optical system comprising lenses 12, 14 and objective lens 16. These lenses are arranged in a double sequence of a 4F arrangement. A different lens arrangement can be used, provided that it still provides an image of the source on the substrate, and simultaneously allows for access of an intermediate pupil-plane for spatial-frequency filtering. Therefore, the angular range at which the radiation is incident on the substrate can be selected by defining a spatial intensity distribution in a plane that presents the spatial spectrum of the substrate plane, here referred to as a (conjugate) pupil plane. In particular, this can be done by inserting an aperture plate 13 of suitable form between lenses 12 and 14, in a plane which is a back-projected image of the objective lens pupil plane. For example, as illustrated, aperture plate 13 can different forms, two of which are labeled 13N and 13S, allowing different illumination modes to be selected. The illumination system in the illustrated example forms an off-axis illumination mode. In the first illumination mode, aperture plate 13N provides off-axis from a direction designated, for the sake of description only, as ‘north’. In a second illumination mode, aperture plate 13S is used to provide similar illumination, but from an opposite direction, labeled ‘south’. Other modes of illumination are possible by using different apertures. The rest of the pupil plane is desirably dark as any unnecessary light outside the desired illumination mode will interfere with the desired measurement signals.

At least the 0th and one of the −1 and +1 orders diffracted by the target on substrate W are collected by objective lens 16 and directed back through beam splitter 15. A second beam splitter 17 divides the diffracted beams into two measurement branches. In a first measurement branch, optical system 18 forms a diffraction spectrum (pupil plane image) of the target on first sensor 19 (e.g., a CCD or CMOS sensor) using the zeroth and first order diffractive beams. Each diffraction order hits a different point on the sensor, so that image processing can compare and contrast orders. The pupil plane image captured by sensor 19 can be used for focusing the metrology apparatus and/or normalizing intensity measurements of the first order beam. The pupil plane image can be used for many measurement purposes such as reconstruction.

In the second measurement branch, optical system 20, 22 forms an image of the target on the substrate W on sensor 23 (e.g., a CCD or CMOS sensor). In the second measurement branch, an aperture stop 21 is provided in a plane that is conjugate to the pupil-plane. Aperture stop 21 functions to block the zeroth order diffracted beam so that the image of the target formed on sensor 23 is formed only from the −1 or +1 first order beam. The image detected by sensor 23 is thus referred to as a ‘dark-field’ image. Note that the term ‘image’ is used here in a broad sense. An image of the grating lines as such will not be formed, if only one of the −1 and +1 orders is present.

The images captured by sensors 19 and 23 are output to image processor and controller PU, the function of which will depend on the particular type of measurements being performed. More detail of the apparatus and its applications can be found in the prior patent applications mentioned in the introduction above. The present disclosure is concerned with the construction and operation of the light source 11, to provide higher brightness than the Xe arc lamp used in the known apparatus.

Examples of scatterometers and techniques can be found in patent applications US 2006/066855 A1, WO 2009/078708, WO 2009/106279, and US 2011/0027704 A, which are all incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. Published patent application US 2011/204265 A1, incorporated by reference herein in its entirety, discloses plasma based light sources including laser driven light sources. It is explained that the plasma can take an elongate form, which increases the radiating area and increases the brightness. Measures are described for reducing the longitudinal extent of the plasma, with the aim of increasing the brightness.

FIG. 4 shows schematically the principal components of a laser-driven photon source apparatus. The central component is a container 40, for example a glass capsule, containing a predetermined gaseous atmosphere. A suitable gas for example may be xenon (Xe), or a xenon-argon mix. Within this atmosphere, a plasma 42 is generated in a manner to be described, and the plasma emits light (more generally photons of radiation of the desired wavelengths). Collection optics 44 form a beam 46 of the radiation that is coupled to a optical fiber 48. Fiber 48 delivers the radiation to the point where it is needed. When the photon source is used as the source in the apparatus of FIG. 3, the end of fiber 48 forms the source 11 seen in FIG. 3. Collection optics 44 is shown here as a simple lens, but can of course be more complex in practical embodiment. Reflective rather than refractive optics may be used.

Plasma 42 in this embodiment is generated by application of drive radiation 50 which is generated in this example by a laser 52. Drive optics 54 focus the laser into a convergent beam 56 which reaches its narrowest point at the location where the plasma 42 is desired to be formed and maintained. The laser 52 may be one of a number of different types of high power laser available today or in future. It may for example be a Nd:YAG laser, a CO₂ laser, a diode laser, a fiber laser. Drive optics 54 is shown here as a simple lens, but can of course be more complex in practical embodiment. Reflective rather than refractive optics may be used. Further components may be provided to condition the laser radiation in its profile or spectral characteristics. A beam expander may be used, for example.

The laser radiation may be for example in infrared wavelengths, such as 700 to 2000 nm. The plasma will typically generating radiation at shorter wavelengths in the infrared, visible and/or ultraviolet bands, for example down to 200 nm or below. Among this plasma radiation are the desired wavelengths for use in the metrology apparatus or other application. Filter components 58 may be provided in the optical path, for example to reduce the amount of infrared radiation entering collection optics 44 and/or fiber 48. Such filters can be placed inside and/or outside container 40. They may also be integrated with the container wall, and/or with other components of the collection optics 44.

Laser energy 50, although very narrowly focused, is not necessarily sufficient to ignite the plasma from a cold start, and electrodes 60 and 62 are provided with appropriate power and control circuitry (not shown), in order to ignite the plasma. These electrodes may be similar to those used in a conventional gas discharge lamp, but are used only during a start-up phase of operation.

In the diagram, axes X, Y and Z are defined for the sake of this description. The Z axis is aligned with an optical axis O. The Y direction is aligned with the electrodes 60, 62. The X axis is transverse to the electrodes, and normal to the plane of the diagram. The apparatus can be constructed or mounted with these axes in any orientation that is convenient for its application. Note that there is no component obstructing the optical path from the plasma 42 to the collection optics in the Z direction. There is also in this example nothing obstructing the path of light in the X direction (not shown in this view).

It will be noted that plasma 42, or at least the region of the plasma from which the desired radiation is taken, is elongate in form, having approximately the shape of a cylinder, or cigar. We will refer to the shape as cylindrical for the sake of explanation. The length of the cylinder is L and its diameter is d. The real plasma will comprise a cloud of elongate form, centered on this cylindrical region. Collection optics 44 is arranged with its optical axis O aligned with the longitudinal direction of the plasma, that is the Z direction in this example. The area of the plasma thus appears as πd²/4, that is the area of one end of the cylinder. When L is made substantially greater than d, the depth of plasma from which photons can enter the collection optics through this small area is greater, compared with looking at the plasma in a transverse direction. This allows a higher brightness to be seen over that area, for a given size and intensity of plasma. The etendue of an optical source (or receiver) is broadly speaking the product of the area of the source (receiver) and its exit (entrance) angle. The etendue of the collection optics 44, as with any imaging system, is the product of spot size times and the square of its numerical aperture (NA²). The NA in turn is determined by the entrance angle θ. The etendue of the radiating plasma is in general going to be larger than the etendue of the collection optics 44. Collection optics 44 may be focused at a hypothetical source point 64 midway along the cylinder, as illustrated. In practical examples, the length L of light emitting plasma region 42 may be on the order of a millimeter, say 0.5 to 5 mm. The diameter d may be much smaller, in the range of say 0.01 to 2 mm, for example 0.1 to 1 mm.

In practice, the plasma absorbs very little of the wanted radiation, so that photons emitted anywhere along the length L of the cylinder can travel in the entrance cone of collection optics 44 and into fiber 48. Therefore, compared with the transverse direction, the plasma appears brighter (greater luminous flux per unit area per unit solid angle) than when viewed in the transverse direction. Whereas the known laser driven light sources described in US 2011/204265 A1, incorporated by reference herein in its entirety, seek to capture light emitted in the transverse direction, the novel photon source captures light emitted in the longitudinal direction to exploit the enhanced brightness and smaller extent of the plasma. Whereas, in the known sources, design measures are taken to try and reduce the length L of the plasma to concentrate its power in a smaller length, the constraints on the plasma shape in the novel source are relatively relaxed. Whereas, in some examples in the prior patent application, the plasma extends longitudinally in what we have depicted as the Y direction, between the igniting electrodes, in the novel source the plasma in normal operation is arranged so that rays in the longitudinal direction are not obscured, and can be captured by the collection optics 44. Similarly, while in other examples in the prior patent application the plasma extends in what we have depicted as the Z direction, this is obscured by the driving laser optics, and the usable light is captured by a curved mirror, after being emitted in the X and Y directions from the plasma. Thus all the examples in the prior patent rely on capturing the photons emitted transversely from the plasma.

FIG. 5 shows experimental results confirming the enhanced brightness of an elongate plasma 42 across a whole spectrum of wavelengths, when viewed longitudinally rather than transversely. The horizontal axis represents wavelength (λ), extending from 200 nm at the ultraviolet end to 850 nm in the near infrared. The vertical axis represents brightness (B) at each wavelength, in units of 10⁴ W/m²/nm/sr. The upper curve 70 shows the brightness measured when viewing the plasma longitudinally, while the lower curves 72, 74 (which are so close as to appear superimposed) show brightness measured when viewing the plasma in the transverse direction. It is clear that over the entire spectrum, the longitudinal view presents greater brightness. Over the visible and ultraviolet parts of the spectrum the increase in brightness is a factor 5 or more. The plasma in this experiment had diameter d approximately 0.3 mm and length L approximately 1.5 mm.

Numerical modeling also confirms that the brightness viewed in the longitudinal direction will increase (relative to the transverse direction) as a function of the plasma length. For a first modeled example having a plasma with diameter d=300 μm (0.3 mm) and for collection optics with half angle (θ/2) of 50 mrad, the brightness increases very rapidly as a function of length L, reaching a factor 10 at around 5 mm length and reaching a limit of around factor 15. For a second modeled example with d=1 mm and θ/2=15 mrad, the brightness increase rises more steadily reaching a factor 10 at around 10 mm.

It should be noted that the intensity profile of the radiation emitted by the plasma source might not be perfectly uniform across the field of view of collection optics 44. While constraints on the plasma dimensions are relaxed as described above, still the entrance NA of collection optics 44 should be reasonably uniformly filled with radiation. The larger the aspect ratio L/d of the plasma, the smaller the etendue will be in which the radiation is uniformly distributed. Mixing of the light to make it more homogeneous may be desired, for example when the photon source apparatus is used to deliver a homogeneous light field across aperture 13 in the apparatus of FIG. 13. Sufficient mixing may occur naturally within the fiber 48, or additional measures may be taken. Also, optical properties of the walls of the container 40 should be good enough at the key locations that they do not degrade the quality of the drive laser beam or the pencil of rays emanating from plasma 42 to collection optics 44. Optical properties of the container wall should of course be taken into account in designing and setting up the collection optics 44 and focusing optics 54. Functional elements of collection optics 44 and focusing optics 54 can be placed inside container 40 if desired, and/or may be integrated with the wall of the container.

FIGS. 6 and 7 illustrate further embodiments based on the principles just described. The same reference signs are used as in FIG. 4, for components having the same functions. Fiber 48 is omitted from FIGS. 6 & 7 simply to create space. The options and properties described for the example of FIG. 4 apply equally in the examples of FIGS. 6 and 7, unless otherwise stated.

In FIG. 6, the arrangement is very similar to that of FIG. 4, except that a back-reflector 80 is provided to reflect rays 82 emitted in the reverse longitudinal direction back into the plasma. Reflector 80 may be spherical, for example, with curvature centered with radius r on the point of focus 64. As the reverse longitudinal direction is also the direction of the incoming laser beam 50, reflector 80 is formed with an aperture of a suitable size to admit the laser beam. Reflector 80 can be provided inside or outside container 40, and may be formed on the wall of the container 40 itself. Additional reflectors may be provided to capture transversely-emitted photons and return them to the plasma. Examples of these will be illustrated in the example of FIG. 7. Photons reflected by these side reflectors will not enter the collection optics which has the small etendue as described. However, they may assist laser energy 50 to maintain the plasma, and they may improve homogeneity of the plasma and hence of the emitted radiation. As before, filter 58 or equivalent components may be provided to tailor the spectral properties of the outgoing radiation beam 46. In particular, a filter 58 may be provided to reduce or eliminate radiation 50 from the laser, for example infrared radiation, entering collection optics 44.

FIG. 7 shows two views of a further modified embodiment. The form and orientation of plasma 42 and collection optics 44 are the same as in the previous examples, and a back-reflector 80 is again provided. In this example, however, the laser radiation 50 that drives the plasma is delivered transversely to the elongate plasma, for example in the X direction. An additional ‘side’ reflector 84 may be provided to capture transversely-emitted photons 86 and return them to the plasma. An opposite side reflector 88 may be provided, with an aperture 89 for admitting the laser radiation that is delivered by focusing optics 54 in a beam 90. Photons reflected by these side reflectors will not enter the collection optics which has the small etendue as described. However, they may assist laser energy 50 to maintain the plasma, and they may improve homogeneity of the plasma and hence of the emitted radiation. Reflectors 84 and 88 may be spherical, cylindrical or a compound of the two, depending on whether some redistribution (mixing) of energy is required in the longitudinal direction. Reflector 84 may be provided with an aperture similar to that in reflector 88, in order to allow an exit of the laser radiation. Side reflectors can be positioned close to the electrode locations, if desired. As before, reflectors may be inside the container 40 (as illustrated) or outside it. They may be integrated with the container wall.

Instead of being focused into an elongate beam aligned with the longitudinal direction, the laser radiation 50 in this example is spread and focused into a beam 90 having a line-shaped focus, matching the dimensions of the desired plasma 42. To do this, focusing optics 54 comprises primarily a cylindrical lens, as illustrated, to form a convergent beam 90 as seen in FIG. 7 (b), viewing along the Z direction. A beam expander 92 may be provided between laser 52 and optics 54 in order to spread the beam to a desired width. Viewed in the Y direction, as shown in FIG. 7 (a), beam 90 may be convergent as shown. Alternatively, beam 90 may be divergent viewed in the Y direction and convergent viewed in the Z direction. Multiple laser beams and lenses may be deployed to create the desired focusing along the line of plasma 42. Driving radiation could be delivered both transversely and longitudinally, if desired, combining features of FIGS. 4-6 and 7 together.

In this second example, although the focusing optics may be more complicated, there are some benefits compared with the examples of FIGS. 4 and 6. As a matter of principle, it will be seen that the longitudinal direction of the plasma, which is also the exit direction for the usable radiation, is orthogonal to the axis of the igniting electrodes, which in turn is orthogonal to the axis of entry of the driving laser beam. Therefore this arrangement has greater freedom from the constraints of mechanical and optical interference between these subs-systems. One benefit for example is that back reflector 80, if provided, needs no aperture. Alternatively, a second collection optics and a second output could be taken from the ‘back’ end of the plasma. The requirement for filtering to prevent the laser radiation entering collection optics 44 is also eliminated or reduced. Other variations and modifications discussed in the context of the earlier examples can be applied in the FIG. 7 example also.

Note also that the principle of using radiation emitted in the longitudinal direction of an elongate plasma to increase brightness is not limited to the laser-driven light source examples above. Elongate plasmas may be generated by focusing other types of radiation, in particular microwave radiation. Replacing laser 50 with a suitable microwave source or sources, and replacing focusing optics 54 with suitable microwave focusing optics, the benefits of forming an elongate plasma 42 and using longitudinal emission can be applied. The principle of using longitudinal emission may also be applied using plasmas formed by other means, such as by electric fields.

Further embodiments according to the invention are provided in below numbered clauses:

-   1. A plasma-based photon source apparatus comprising:     -   (a) a container for containing a gaseous atmosphere,     -   (b) a driving system for generating radiation, hereinafter         referred to as the driving radiation, and forming the driving         radiation into at least one beam focused on a plasma forming         zone within the container, and     -   (c) a collecting optical system for collecting photons emitted         by a plasma maintained by the radiation beam at the plasma         location and forming the collected photons into at least one         beam of output radiation,

wherein the driving optical system is configured to maintain the plasma in an elongate form having a length along a longitudinal axis that is substantially greater than its diameter in at least one direction transverse to the longitudinal axis, and wherein the collecting optical system is configured to collect photons emerging from the plasma from one end of the plasma along the longitudinal axis.

-   2. An apparatus according to in clause 1 wherein the driving system     includes at least one laser for generating the beam of radiation. -   3. An apparatus according to clause 1 or 2 wherein the driving     radiation has wavelengths predominantly in a first range, for     example infrared wavelengths, and the output radiation has     wavelengths predominantly in a second range different from the first     range, for example visible and/or ultraviolet radiation. -   4. An apparatus according to clause 1, 2 or 3 wherein the driving     system is arranged to deliver the driving radiation along the     longitudinal axis at an end of the plasma opposite to the end from     which the collected photons emerge. -   5. An apparatus according to clause 1, 2, 3 or 4 wherein the driving     system is arranged to deliver the driving radiation to the plasma     forming location in a direction transverse to the longitudinal     direction. -   6. An apparatus according to clause 5 wherein the driving system is     arranged to focus the driving radiation into a substantially line     focus corresponding to the elongated form of the plasma. -   7. An apparatus according to any preceding clause further including     two or more electrodes positioned on opposite sides of the plasma     forming location, for use in igniting the plasma prior to operation,     the electrodes being placed away off the longitudinal axis. -   8. An apparatus according to clause 7 wherein the electrodes are     positioned on an axis orthogonal to the longitudinal axis. -   9. An apparatus according to clause 8 wherein the electrodes, the     driving system and the collecting optical system are arranged on     three axes that are mutually orthogonal -   10. An apparatus according to any preceding clause further     comprising a reflector positioned and shaped to reflect back into     the plasma photons emerging in a longitudinal direction from an     opposite end of the plasma. -   11. An apparatus according to any preceding clause further     comprising one or more reflector positioned and shaped to reflect     back into the plasma photons emerging in one or more directions     transverse to the longitudinal direction of the plasma. -   12. A method of measuring a property of structures that have been     formed by a lithographic process on a substrate, the method     comprising the steps of:     -   (a) illuminating the structures using output radiation of a         photon source according to any of clauses 1 to 11;     -   (b) detecting radiation diffracted by the structures; and     -   (c) determining from properties of the diffracted radiation one         or more properties of the structure. -   13. An inspection apparatus for measuring a property of a structure     on a substrate, the apparatus comprising:     -   (a) support for the substrate having the structure thereon;     -   (b) an optical system for illuminating the structure under         predetermined illumination conditions and for detecting         predetermined portions of radiation diffracted by the component         target structures under the illumination conditions;     -   (c) a processor arranged to process information characterizing         the detected radiation to obtain a measurement of the property         of the structure,     -   (d) wherein the optical system includes a photon source         apparatus according to any of clauses 1 to 11. -   14. A lithographic system comprising:     -   (a) a lithographic apparatus comprising:     -   (b) an illumination optical system arranged to illuminate a         pattern;     -   (c) a projection optical system arranged to project an image of         the pattern onto a substrate; and     -   (d) an inspection apparatus according to clause 13,

wherein the lithographic apparatus is arranged to use the measurement results from the inspection apparatus in applying the pattern to further substrates.

-   15. A method of manufacturing devices wherein a device pattern is     applied to a series of substrates using a lithographic process, the     method including inspecting at least one composite target structure     formed as part of or beside the device pattern on at least one of     the substrates using an inspection method according to clause 12 and     controlling the lithographic process for later substrates in     accordance with the result of the inspection method. -   16. A plasma-based photon source apparatus comprising:     -   a container configured to contain a gaseous atmosphere,     -   a driving system configured to generate driving radiation and to         form the driving radiation into at least one beam focused on a         plasma forming zone within the container, and     -   a collecting optical system configured to collect photons         emitted by a plasma maintained by the radiation beam at the         plasma location and to form the collected photons into at least         one beam of output radiation,     -   wherein the driving optical system is configured to maintain the         plasma in an elongate form having a length along a longitudinal         axis that is substantially greater than its diameter in at least         one direction transverse to the longitudinal axis, and     -   wherein the collecting optical system is configured to collect         photons emerging from the plasma from one end of the plasma         along the longitudinal axis. -   17. The apparatus of clause 16, wherein the driving system includes     at least one laser for generating the beam of radiation. -   18. The apparatus of clause 16, wherein the driving radiation has     wavelengths predominantly in a first range of infrared wavelengths     and the output radiation has wavelengths predominantly in a second     range, different from the first range, of visible and/or ultraviolet     radiation. -   19. The apparatus of clause 16, wherein the driving system is     arranged to deliver the driving radiation along the longitudinal     axis at an end of the plasma opposite to an end from which the     collected photons emerge. -   20. The apparatus of clause 16, wherein the driving system is     arranged to deliver the driving radiation to the plasma forming     location in a direction transverse to the longitudinal direction. -   21. The apparatus of clause 20, wherein the driving system is     arranged to focus the driving radiation into a substantially line     focus corresponding to the elongated form of the plasma. -   22. The apparatus of clause 16, further including:     -   two or more electrodes positioned on opposite sides of the         plasma forming location, for use in igniting the plasma prior to         operation, the electrodes being placed away off the longitudinal         axis. -   23. The apparatus of clause 22, wherein the electrodes are     positioned on an axis orthogonal to the longitudinal axis. -   24. The apparatus of clause 23, wherein the electrodes, the driving     system and the collecting optical system are arranged on three axes     that are mutually orthogonal. -   25. The apparatus of clause 16, further comprising a reflector     positioned and shaped to reflect back into the plasma photons     emerging in a longitudinal direction from an opposite end of the     plasma. -   26. The apparatus of clause 16, further comprising one or more     reflector positioned and shaped to reflect back into the plasma     photons emerging in one or more directions transverse to the     longitudinal direction of the plasma. -   27. A method comprising:     -   illuminating structures using output radiation of a photon         source apparatus comprising:         -   a container configured to contain a gaseous atmosphere,         -   a driving system configured to generate driving radiation             and to form the driving radiation into at least one beam             focused on a plasma forming zone within the container, and         -   a collecting optical system configured to collect photons             emitted by a plasma maintained by the radiation beam at the             plasma location and to form the collected photons into at             least one beam of output radiation,             -   wherein the driving optical system is configured to                 maintain the plasma in an elongate form having a length                 along a longitudinal axis that is substantially greater                 than its diameter in at least one direction transverse                 to the longitudinal axis, and             -   wherein the collecting optical system is configured to                 collect photons emerging from the plasma from one end of                 the plasma along the longitudinal axis;     -   detecting radiation diffracted by the structures; and     -   determining from properties of the diffracted radiation one or         more properties of the structure. -   28. An inspection apparatus comprising:     -   a support for the substrate having the structure thereon;     -   an optical system for illuminating the structure under         predetermined illumination conditions and for detecting         predetermined portions of radiation diffracted by the component         target structures under the illumination conditions;     -   a processor arranged to process information characterizing the         detected radiation to obtain a measurement of the property of         the structure,     -   wherein the optical system includes a photon source apparatus         comprising:     -   a container configured to contain a gaseous atmosphere, a         driving system configured to generate driving radiation and to         form the driving radiation into at least one beam focused on a         plasma forming zone within the container, and     -   a collecting optical system configured to collect photons         emitted by a plasma maintained by the radiation beam at the         plasma location and to form the collected photons into at least         one beam of output radiation,     -   wherein the driving optical system is configured to maintain the         plasma in an elongate form having a length along a longitudinal         axis that is substantially greater than its diameter in at least         one direction transverse to the longitudinal axis, and     -   wherein the collecting optical system is configured to collect         photons emerging from the plasma from one end of the plasma         along the longitudinal axis. -   29. A lithographic system comprising:     -   a lithographic apparatus comprising:     -   an illumination optical system arranged to illuminate a pattern;     -   a projection optical system arranged to project an image of the         pattern onto a substrate; and     -   an inspection apparatus comprising:         -   a support for the substrate having the structure thereon;         -   an optical system for illuminating the structure under             predetermined illumination conditions and for detecting             predetermined portions of radiation diffracted by the             component target structures under the illumination             conditions;         -   a processor arranged to process information characterizing             the detected radiation to obtain a measurement of the             property of the structure,         -   wherein the optical system includes a photon source             apparatus comprising:             -   a container configured to contain a gaseous atmosphere,             -   a driving system configured to generate driving                 radiation and to form the driving radiation into at                 least one beam focused on a plasma forming zone within                 the container, and             -   a collecting optical system configured to collect                 photons emitted by a plasma maintained by the radiation                 beam at the plasma location and to form the collected                 photons into at least one beam of output radiation,             -   wherein the driving optical system is configured to                 maintain the plasma in an elongate form having a length                 along a longitudinal axis that is substantially greater                 than its diameter in at least one direction transverse                 to the longitudinal axis, and             -   wherein the collecting optical system is configured to                 collect photons emerging from the plasma from one end of                 the plasma along the longitudinal axis,     -   wherein the lithographic apparatus is arranged to use the         measurement results from the inspection apparatus in applying         the pattern to further substrates. -   30. A method of manufacturing devices comprising:     -   inspecting at least one composite target structure formed as         part of or beside a device pattern on at least one of substrate         of a plurality of substrates using an inspection method         comprising:         -   illuminating structures using output radiation of a photon             source apparatus comprising:             -   a container configured to contain a gaseous atmosphere,             -   a driving system configured to generate driving                 radiation and to form the driving radiation into at                 least one beam focused on a plasma forming zone within                 the container, and             -   a collecting optical system configured to collect                 photons emitted by a plasma maintained by the radiation                 beam at the plasma location and to form the collected                 photons into at least one beam of output radiation,             -   wherein the driving optical system is configured to                 maintain the plasma in an elongate form having a length                 along a longitudinal axis that is substantially greater                 than its diameter in at least one direction transverse                 to the longitudinal axis, and             -   wherein the collecting optical system is configured to                 collect photons emerging from the plasma from one end of                 the plasma along the longitudinal axis;         -   detecting radiation diffracted by the structures; and         -   determining from properties of the diffracted radiation one             or more properties of the structure; and     -   controlling the lithographic process for later substrates in         accordance with the result of the inspection method.

Although specific reference may have been made above to the use of embodiments of the invention in the context of optical lithography, it will be appreciated that the invention may be used in other applications, for example imprint lithography, and where the context allows, is not limited to optical lithography. In imprint lithography a topography in a patterning device defines the pattern created on a substrate. The topography of the patterning device may be pressed into a layer of resist supplied to the substrate whereupon the resist is cured by applying electromagnetic radiation, heat, pressure or a combination thereof. The patterning device is moved out of the resist leaving a pattern in it after the resist is cured.

The terms “radiation” and “beam” used herein encompass all types of electromagnetic radiation, including ultraviolet (UV) radiation (e.g., having a wavelength of or about 365, 355, 248, 193, 157 or 126 nm) and extreme ultra-violet (EUV) radiation (e.g., having a wavelength in the range of 5-20 nm), as well as particle beams, such as ion beams or electron beams. As mentioned above, the term radiation in the context of the driving system may also encompass microwave radiation.

The term “lens”, where the context allows, may refer to any one or combination of various types of optical components, including refractive, reflective, magnetic, electromagnetic and electrostatic optical components.

The foregoing description of the specific embodiments will so fully reveal the general nature of the invention that others can, by applying knowledge within the skill of the art, readily modify and/or adapt for various applications such specific embodiments, without undue experimentation, without departing from the general concept of the present invention. Therefore, such adaptations and modifications are intended to be within the meaning and range of equivalents of the disclosed embodiments, based on the teaching and guidance presented herein. It is to be understood that the phraseology or terminology herein is for the purpose of description by example, and not of limitation, such that the terminology or phraseology of the present specification is to be interpreted by the skilled artisan in light of the teachings and guidance.

The breadth and scope of the present invention should not be limited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments, but should be defined only in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents.

It is to be appreciated that the Detailed Description section, and not the Summary and Abstract sections, is intended to be used to interpret the claims. The Summary and Abstract sections may set forth one or more but not all exemplary embodiments of the present invention as contemplated by the inventor(s), and thus, are not intended to limit the present invention and the appended claims in any way.

The present invention has been described above with the aid of functional building blocks illustrating the implementation of specified functions and relationships thereof. The boundaries of these functional building blocks have been arbitrarily defined herein for the convenience of the description. Alternate boundaries can be defined so long as the specified functions and relationships thereof are appropriately performed.

The foregoing description of the specific embodiments will so fully reveal the general nature of the invention that others can, by applying knowledge within the skill of the art, readily modify and/or adapt for various applications such specific embodiments, without undue experimentation, without departing from the general concept of the present invention. Therefore, such adaptations and modifications are intended to be within the meaning and range of equivalents of the disclosed embodiments, based on the teaching and guidance presented herein. It is to be understood that the phraseology or terminology herein is for the purpose of description and not of limitation, such that the terminology or phraseology of the present specification is to be interpreted by the skilled artisan in light of the teachings and guidance. 

The invention claimed is:
 1. A plasma-based photon source apparatus comprising: a container configured to contain a gaseous atmosphere; a driving system configured to form a driving radiation beam focused on a plasma forming zone within the container and maintain, by the driving radiation beam, a plasma in an elongated form having a length along a longitudinal axis that is substantially greater than a diameter of the elongated form in a direction transverse to the longitudinal axis; and a collecting optical system configured to collect photons emitted from an end of the plasma along the longitudinal axis and to form the collected photons into at least one beam of output radiation.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the driving system includes at least one laser for generating the driving radiation beam.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the driving radiation has wavelengths predominantly in a first range of infrared wavelengths and the output radiation has wavelengths predominantly in a second range, different from the first range, of at least one of visible and ultraviolet radiation.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the driving system is configured to deliver the driving radiation beam along the longitudinal axis at an end of the plasma opposite to the end from which the collected photons emerge.
 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the driving system is configured to deliver the driving radiation beam to the plasma forming zone in a direction transverse to the longitudinal direction.
 6. The apparatus of claim 5, wherein the driving system is configured to focus the driving radiation beam into a substantially line focus corresponding to the elongated form of the plasma.
 7. The apparatus of claim 1, further including: two or more electrodes positioned on opposite sides of the plasma forming zone, for use in igniting the plasma prior to operation, the electrodes being placed away off the longitudinal axis.
 8. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein the electrodes are positioned on an axis orthogonal to the longitudinal axis.
 9. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein the electrodes, the driving system and the collecting optical system are arranged on three axes that are mutually orthogonal.
 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the reflector comprises an end reflector positioned and shaped to reflect back into the plasma photons emerging in a longitudinal direction from an opposite end of the plasma.
 11. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising: a reflector configured to reflect photons emitted in the direction transverse to the longitudinal axis back into the plasma.
 12. An inspection apparatus comprising: a support configured to support a substrate, the substrate having a structure thereon; an optical system configured to illuminate the structure under predetermined illumination conditions and to detect radiation diffracted by the structure under the predetermined illumination conditions; a processor configured to process information characterizing the detected radiation to obtain a measurement of a property of the structure, wherein the optical system includes a photon source apparatus comprising: a container configured to contain a gaseous atmosphere; a driving system configured to form a driving radiation beam focused on a plasma forming zone within the container and maintain, by the driving radiation beam, a plasma in an elongated form having a length along a longitudinal axis that is substantially greater than a diameter of the elongated form in a direction transverse to the longitudinal axis; and a collecting optical system configured to collect photons emitted from an end of the plasma along the longitudinal axis and to form the collected photons into at least one beam of output radiation.
 13. A lithographic system comprising: a lithographic apparatus comprising: an illumination optical system configured to illuminate a pattern; a projection optical system configured to project an image of the pattern onto a substrate; and an inspection apparatus comprising: a support configured to support the substrate, the substrate having a structure thereon; an optical system configured to illuminate the structure under predetermined illumination conditions and to detect radiation diffracted by the structure under the predetermined illumination conditions; a processor configured to process information characterizing the detected radiation to obtain a measurement of a property of the structure, wherein the optical system includes a photon source apparatus comprising: a container configured to contain a gaseous atmosphere; a driving system configured to form a driving radiation beam focused on a plasma forming zone within the container and maintain, by the driving radiation beam, a plasma in an elongated form having a length along a longitudinal axis that is substantially greater than a diameter of the elongated form in a direction transverse to the longitudinal axis; and a collecting optical system configured to collect photons emitted from an end of the plasma along the longitudinal axis and to form the collected photons into at least one beam of output radiation, wherein the lithographic apparatus is arranged to use the measurement results from the inspection apparatus in applying the pattern to further substrates.
 14. A method comprising: generating a driving radiation beam focused on a plasma forming zone within a container containing a gaseous atmosphere; maintaining, by the driving radiation beam, a plasma in an elongated form having a length along a longitudinal axis that is substantially greater than a diameter of the elongated form in a direction transverse to the longitudinal axis; collecting photons, by a collecting optical system, emitted from an end of the plasma along the longitudinal axis; and forming the collected photons into at least one beam of output radiation.
 15. The method of claim 14, further comprising: illuminating structures using the beam of output radiation; detecting radiation diffracted by the structures; and determining, from a property of the diffracted radiation, a property of the structure.
 16. The method of claim 14, further comprising: delivering the driving radiation beam to the plasma forming zone in a direction transverse to the longitudinal direction.
 17. The method of claim 16, further comprising: focusing the driving radiation beam into a substantially line focus corresponding to the elongated form of the plasma.
 18. The method of claim 14, further comprising: igniting the plasma prior to operation by two or more electrodes positioned on opposite sides of the plasma forming zone off the longitudinal axis.
 19. The method of claim 14, further comprising: reflecting photons emitted transversely to the longitudinal axis back into the plasma.
 20. A method of manufacturing a device, comprising: generating a driving radiation beam focused on a plasma forming zone within a container containing a gaseous atmosphere; maintaining, by the driving radiation beam, a plasma in an elongated form having a length along a longitudinal axis that is substantially greater than a diameter of the elongated form in a direction transverse to the longitudinal axis; collecting photons, by a collecting optical system, emitted from an end of the plasma along the longitudinal axis; forming the collected photons into at least one beam of output radiation; illuminating a structure using the beam of output radiation; detecting radiation diffracted by the structure; determining, from a property of the diffracted radiation, a property of the structure; and controlling a lithographic process for later substrates in response to the determined property. 